The Political Culture Of Politics - 1506 Words

The term ‘politics’ itself has changed over many years. To ask if the evolution of political culture changes how people participate in politics is simple. The answer is yes. To begin with, let’s define political culture; ‘Authors define the term political culture as the particular distribution of patterns of orientation towards political objects among the members of a nation’ (Almond and Verba 1963: 13 cited in Welzel and Inglehart, 2014 p.285). Now let’s define culture; ‘the term culture covers a broad set of phenomena. It includes traditions, habits, and patterns of behaviour shaped by a society’s prevailing beliefs, norms and values’ (Nolan and Lenski, 1999 cited in Welzel and Inglehart, 2014 p.285). Taking this into account, examples of culture could be how to play hopscotch in a playground or following the rules to a game of tennis or badminton. To address the question, this essay will firstly assess how any capable in dividual is able to participate in politics and secondly if the growth of political culture has increased or decreased participation. A question that is frequently asked is how can one be involved in politics? There are many options. One option can be by joining a political party which interests them and that has a good manifesto with policies that they would like to see take place and therefore taking part in elections and voting. A second option can be by being part of a pressure group for example, one that represents those against smoking calledShow MoreRelatedPolitics : Texas Political Culture1097 Words   |  5 PagesPolitical Culture Texas political culture is one that can be described as a combination of three main ideas: individualistic, traditionalism and moralism. Considering Texas and its overwhelming 254 counties we can see these main ideas undoubtedly. The 254 counties each have their own general set of ideas, attitudes and beliefs. The whole state of Texas is simply not just considered individualistic, traditionalism, or moralism, it is considered all three. Individualistic, traditionalism and moralismRead MorePolitics And The People : Political Culture1966 Words   |  8 PagesEMMANUEL O. (688547) Po-119 Politics and the people The discussion we start by reasoning the weight of political culture into democracy (freedom), firstly it we define the meaning of political culture and the types? What the word democracies actually mean and the type’s examples of countries that is practicing democracy the benefits to the country? What are the networks within democracies and political culture, the similarities, differences, gain and harm to the countries that are or want to practiceRead MorePolitical Symbolism : Politics And Culture Section3061 Words   |  13 PagesLuca Bonvini â€Å"Political Symbolism† Politics and Culture Section 01 October 12, 2014 Paper 1, Fall 2014 Dr. Rossi â€Æ' After reading Crafting Democracy How Novgord has Coped with Rapid Social Change and understanding of the notes and lectures during class, political symbolism has become clear to me as an efficient form of understanding culture. There are four merits of political symbolism. One of its first merits is it has far greater dynamics of understanding culture, particularly during a â€Å"crisisRead MorePolity: Political Culture and the Nature of Politics Essay1119 Words   |  5 PagesIn the book Polity:Political Culture and the Nature of Politics, Craig L. 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While the former take the study of politics as a study of state government and power, that is an instrument of coercion, the latter take politics as a study of power (political, economical and ideological) alone. It is quite difficult to get an accurate definition of politics, because

The Discrimination Of A Male Dominant Company - 1888 Words

Throughout these difficult times in America we have all been faced with things that are more than unfavorable. However, I am pleased to say that the people I have the pleasure to work around and work with don t fit into that category. Like most they have their complaints and have witness or been a part of things that they don t necessarily agree with like the current election, blatant racism in society, or the general unfairness so many of us are subject to. I hate to say it but it s hard to remain above the nonsense. Most of my coworkers are people of color and they enjoyed being American and living in America. In my research the answers were different between my two interviewees but they were very similar in some ways, this was probably because I interviewed a male and female however, I wanted to get two different views from the opposite sex. The company that we work for is a software company, made up of mostly men and maybe about 5% women. Working in a male dominant company can b e difficult for any woman. However, my first interviewee Anusha remains strong doesn t let anyone push her around which was one of the reasons I decided to interview her. What I first noticed about both interviewees were that they were both so pleased to be in America. I sometimes feel as if Americans take living in America for granted, we never truly understand what it feels like to be without. Both of my interviewees’ were excited and happy to do me this favor. They both were appreciativeShow MoreRelatedLack Of Gender Discrimination On The Workplace1203 Words   |  5 Pagesimplemented in the labor force environment, there is still room for improvement. There are numerous individuals who regard gender inequality in the workplace as a myth; however, many companies display an immense resistance to enforce laws that will protect their female employees from unfair and unlawful discrimination. 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Paltas Free Essays

string(73) " Despite its relative fragility, the human body can live for many years\." Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs by Bob Poston, cst An Exercise in Personal Exploration: Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs is a valuable assessment tool that is used in many different professions, particularly those in the fields of education and health care. the ideas of needs are addressed in order, as the body resolves the most basic needs for survival before moving on to more complex needs. M ny educational programs in the health care field teach Maslow’s hierarchy in order to address the needs of patients and where they are in their life from a psychological perspective, simply because it helps identify and address the needs of those particular patients. We will write a custom essay sample on Paltas or any similar topic only for you Order Now The idea of using a hierarchy pyramid helps us to lay out the stages of need, starting with the base of the pyramid, which looks at physiological needs. As we work our way up the pyramid, the needs start to become more complex, and include safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and finally, at the very top, we have self-actualization. This article explores the theories of Abraham Maslow in detail, as well as addresses the controversies that have been questioned in his theory. This article will also evaluate the impact of these theories on human behavior and assess each of the components comprised within Maslow’s Hierarchy Pyramid. learning OBJec tives s identify the different levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs s Compare and contrast the differences between being needs and deficit needs s explain the process of selfactualization s examine how Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs impacts patient care Biographical outline Born on April 1, 1908, in Brooklyn, New York, Abraham Maslow was the first of seven children. 1 The son of under-educated Jewish immigrants, Maslow didn’t have many friends as a young s Consider the challenges to Maslow’s theories and formulate a response  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 347 food and play, they would in more cases choose the food. The same was true when it came to the monkeys’ choice between water and food. The water would always be chosen as the Selfpriority over food. Self-fulfullment actualization: needs achieving one’s As the observations continued, a full potential, pattern emerged. Maslow could see, on including creative a physiological level, that if the monactivities keys didn’t have food, but had water, Esteem needs: the group was less aggressive than prestige and feeling of accomplishment Psychological those that had the water taken away needs Belongingness and love needs: from them. 1 The same held true with intimate relationships, friends safety needs. If all of the physiologiSafety needs: cal needs were met, then the monkeys’ security, safety Basic behavior became more profound when needs Physiological needs: it came to establishing social roles and food, water, warmth, rest dominance. Maslow later transitioned this idea over to human behavior and was able to establish physiological needs over child, but found his sense of self by reading books. He safety needs, safety needs over belongingness needs, belongbegan his college journey by attending City College of New ingness needs over esteem needs, and esteem needs. The York, and later transferred to Cornell University, before needs, in turn, form the first four components of the pyragoing back to City College of New York. After realizing a mid, and are addressed as deficit needs. Self-actualization, keen interest in psychology, he moved to Wisconsin, where the fifth component, addresses the need of being, which he studied at the University of Wisconsin. Throughout defines one’s own place in the universe. the 1930s, Maslow earned his BA, MA and PhD. Later, When an individual does not have enough of something, he returned to New York, where he not only taught full he or she has a deficit, ultimately creating what Maslow has time at Brooklyn College, but he also became interested in termed â€Å"deficit needs. †1 When individuals eat and drink, human sexuality. for example, the need for water and food is met, so there Maslow served as chair of the Department of Psy- is no longer a motivating factor to obtain water or food, chology at Brandeis from 1951-61. While there, he met and the deficit need has temporarily been satisfied. Deficit a well-established researcher named Kurt Goldstein, who needs comprise or make up the four lower components of developed the idea of â€Å"self-actualization. † This concept Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid. fascinated Maslow, and it was through this notion that he On the other hand, Maslow also mentions the idea of pursued the idea of humanistic psychology, which he ultiâ€Å"being needs. † Being needs have nothing to do with deficit mately valued more than his own research. Maslow died needs. Being needs are internal, and are at the very top of on June 8, 1970. 1 Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, which ties into self-actualization. 2 An example here might be drawing one’s own conclucreating the hierarchy of needs sions of where and who he or she is spiritually. This internal Abraham Maslow is well known for the creation of the concept is addressed as self-actualization. hierarchy of needs. The way he came up with this idea The following sections of this article will address each was by studying and observing monkeys. During observalevel of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in more detail in an tion, he noticed that they displayed a very unusual pattern effort to see how they apply to individuals, and how they of behavior that addressed priorities based on individual can define who and where an individual is in his or her life. needs. If, for example, the monkeys had a choice between FIGURE 1: MASLOW’S HIERARCHY PYRAMID 348 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS With so many different capabilities, from the regulation of temperature and hormones to the processing of water, food and the elimination of waste, the living body is the most unique machine in the universe. Despite its relative fragility, the human body can live for many years. You read "Paltas" in category "Papers" Every single detail is so integral, from how the body processes oxygen through millions and millions of tissue cells, to the thousands of miles of arteries that carry blood and nutrients to those tissues. With this being said, there is still the need to meet the very basic essentials of ife: the body must take on oxygen, water and food. Before any further growth can take place, this very basic need has to be met. This is what Maslow addresses as a physiological need—the need for the body to work in unison to accomplish the task of basic survival. Physiological needs are influenced generally through the cravings that we have. If a person is thir sty, he or she finds a drinking fountain. Similarly, if the individual is hungry, he or she will find food. If the body is being deprived of oxygen, it will surely react. If there is a vitamin deficiency, the body has subtle ways of fulfilling that need. One example of how the body regulates itself on a physiological level is by homeostasis. Homeostasis simply means to regulate. A part of the human brain, called the hypothalamus, plays an important role in keeping the body regulated by controlling the body’s thermostat, which is controlled by the release of several hormones called gonadotropins. If a female produces too much estrogen, the hypothalamus releases a hormone called luteinizing hormone that triggers ovulation, therefore acting like a shut-off switch for the amount of estrogen present. If the thyroid gland produces too much thyroxin, the hypothalamus produces a hormone to switch off the flow of the thyroxin. These are Throughout life, the idea of physiological needs remains consistent. The need to maintain adequate physiological balance will always be essential†¦ just a few examples of homeostasis at work, however, there are many circulatory hormones that are needed to maintain normal bodily functions. Another prime example is the release of the â€Å"fight or flight† hormones that are secreted by the adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands. If there is a need for the body to defend itself, these hormones will surge into action to prepare the body for fight or flight. These hormones, although they play an important role, are kept in compliance by regulatory mechanisms within the brain. 3 Throughout life, the idea of physiological needs remains consistent. The need to maintain adequate physiological balance will always be essential, and may kick into action in very different ways at various different times, whether the individuals experiencing it are aware of it or not. For example, how would anyone ever get a good night’s sleep if they had to literally think about their breathing pattern, heart rate or blood pressure on a conscious level? Sure some people may have to get up during the night to use the restroom or grab a glass of water, but remember that this is all part of how the body regulates itself. The notion that physiological needs tie into other, more complex needs of the hierarchy is very relevant. Maslow The basic principles of Maslow’s hierarchy have been observed in primates.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. rg AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 349 Again, this need will change depending on where an individual is in his or her life. For a young child, approvalseeking behaviors may become more commonplace. The child may engage in activities to get his or her parents’ attention by exploring or asking lots of questions. In a sense, the child needs to feel an emotional or social connection with SAFET Y NEEDS his or her parents. As the child evolves into a teenager, he Much like physiological needs require maintenance throughout life, so does the need to feel secure. This need is or she will more than likely become more socially active in more psychological. With that being said, safety needs may peer groups. Generally, whatever gets reinforced, supported, be different for each individual, depending on where he or or accepted by these peer groups will often determine which type of group the adolescent will affiliate him or herself she is in life. For a child, this need may manifest as the need with. This idea can be noticed at any point throughout an individual’s life. Safety needs may be different for each individual, depending on As youths ature into adulthood, they tend to affiliate with those indiwhere he or she is in life. For a child, this need may manifest as viduals or groups who accept them. A sense or a need to belong, at any the need for a safe family environment. There has to be security stage, is influenced by several factors. in the home, with warmth and love. Some of these influences, for example, are socio-economic influenc es: the education level of parents and family, 4 the neighborhood in which the child grows up and the type for a safe family environment. There has to be security in the home, with warmth and love. When a family is dysfunc- of schools where they are educated, as well as the children tional, it makes it difficult for that child to move up to the who attend those schools. Whatever type of behavior is learned and accepted, based on these variables, is likely the next level of social needs because fear is often present. For adults, this need may be economic in nature. If a behavior that will form a particular individual’s character person loses his or her job, for example, fear and anxiety and self-esteem. The level of belonging must be established because of its will have an impact on that person’s social life, and may effect on one’s self-esteem. If the level of belonging in the cause him or her to regress. 5 Additionally, adults are not hierarchy model is low, or an individual is viewed negatively immune to the need of safety. In some parts of the world, where there is chaos, people are stuck at this level of need- by peers in that group, he or she may develop social anxiety ing to feel safe. The goal of consistently meeting the need for and may withdraw toward a level of people in which he or safety is to have stability in one’s life. It is the idea of being she fits in socially. If a child grows up in a neighborhood able to walk around the block at night without the worry of where there are street gangs, and attends schools in that being mugged. It is the idea of feeling secure in the work- neighborhood with the families of those street gangs, then place. It is conclusive that fear hinders one’s ability to move the likelihood of the child to adapt and take on that form of character becomes more likely. According to Maslow, the on to the more advanced platforms of Maslow’s pyramid. eason for this behavioral pattern is likely due to the peer groups that the child grew up with. BELONGING NEEDS This is not meant to imply that all children who grow up Advancing up the hierarchy pyramid, the next level reprein this type of neighborhood will join a gang, simply that sents the need to belong on a social level. The social level generally becomes the priority only after the physiological there is a higher lik elihood of that outcome. On the other and safety needs have been sufficiently met and maintained. and, if a child is brought up in a more affluent neighborhood, it is likely that the parents will also be more educated. A sense of belonging can be felt when an individual becomes more focused on the desire to build relationships with others. In this scenario, it is more likely that the child will develop This includes the desire for a romantic partner, to have close and adapt to the peer groups in which education is more of a priority. The influence in a child’s upbringing starts friends, and maybe to get married and have children. 1 elieved that once the physiological needs are met in sufficient detail, people move on to address these more complex needs. Safety and security make up the next platform of the pyramid. 350 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org with a home and family t hat secures the previous levels of Maslow’s hierarchy by meeting and maintaining the foundation levels of needs. Relieving any anxiety or fear will help put more emphasis on social development, and with this will come a healthier self-esteem. ESTEEM NEEDS Once the needs of physiology, safety and belonging have been met, the individual will now move on to the needs of their self-esteem. Self-esteem, like all the prior needs, must also be maintained. This is the highest platform in the category of deficit needs. 1 The process of growth, when addressing one’s self-esteem, builds the bridge to one’s awareness. Self-esteem begins to establish itself in life as early as age two. Maslow’s hierarchy addresses two levels of self-esteem. One of those is a lower level and the other is a higher level. Maslow’s hierarchy is a two-way street. A person can spend a lifetime traveling between the two extremes. The lower form of self-esteem is directly related to an individual’s ego, meaning that there is a strong need to be respected by others. 4 Within this lower form, the individual still remains focused on acceptance by others. This lower form of self-esteem is met when an individual has established a level of status, recognition, fame, reputation and appreciation, just to name a few. These areas in a person’s life take work to maintain. They may also require some reinforcement or validation of some kind in order for this lower form of self-esteem to be maintained. The higher form of self-esteem that Maslow addresses is that of self-respect. This higher form of self-esteem requires less maintenance because through accomplishment, it becomes a permanent part of who the individual is. We can say that once a person has gained respect for himself or herself, it is much harder to lose that respect or to have it taken away. People on the higher end of selfesteem generally like who they are. The idea of confidence in ability, the mastery of something, or the competence that is established in what these people do, supports this higher form of self-esteem. These forms of self-esteem should not be confused with an individual having high or low self-esteem. Individuals with low self-esteem often have a low opinion of themselves and their self-image. As a result, inferiority complexes are present in the individual. With this idea in mind, Maslow contends that the majority of people’s psychological problems are due to low self-esteem. The realism here is that if a person don’t like himself or herself, or who he or she is or what he or she has accomplished, then that person will be more critical of himself or herself. Through that process, negative self talk is born, and can create a barrier to achieving personal success. How does low self-esteem impact these lower and higher forms of selfesteem in general? If an individual has low self-esteem, the lower form of self-esteem affects the individual on a social level. The individual may, for example, constantly attempt to seek or validate feedback and acceptance on a social level from his or her peers. With regard to the higher form of selfesteem, in the individual with low selfesteem may display a lack of respect for himself or herself and the expectations that they place upon themselves would be unrealistic, or perhaps in some cases these expectations would be placed by others rather than being placed by the individuals themselves. It is amazing that all of the prior needs within Maslow’s hierarchy, including physiological, safety, and even belongingness needs are frequently met, especially in modern society and developed countries. Imagine if more people just had a little respect for themselves in the grand scheme of things.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 351 THE CONTROVERSY As we take a look at Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, there is some controversy as to how it relates directly to humanistic psychology. Is there enough evidence to support this hierarchy when it comes right down to how people develop emotionally? Maslow set forth with the notion that these stages along Self-actualizers are focused on what matters most in defining the course of development match up with how people experience psychowho they are. Once self-respect is gained, the individual can take logical growth. The primary contention is that a more proactive approach to bettering themselves, as well as anyone in society can regress back to, being able to remain focused on resolving any dilemmas †¦ or value an alternative aspect of the hierarchy pyramid in a way that is not parallel with Maslow’s model. For example, some cultures may be more fixated on belongto figure out, or it can be the determining factor of how well ing over safety, or esteem over belonging. 5 To answer these he or she is connected with his or her self and abilities. People who are self-actualizers are focused on what challenges, many experts believe that Abraham Maslow’s matters most in defining who they are. Once self-respect is hierarchy doesn’t always follow in sequence with how it gained, the individual can take a more proactive approach was intended. If the notion of self-esteem, for example, is thought to develop in children as early as two years of age, to bettering themselves, as well as being able to remain focused on resolving any dilemmas that may arise regarding then why does Maslow address esteem needs so high up in the deficit stages. Self-actualizers may be more generative in the hierarchy pyramid? Humanistic psychology does challenge some of these notions, even though Maslow was a the sense that the focus is no longer as much about pleasbeliever in humanistic psychology. ng others as it is giving back or sharing this part of who Another oft-challenged aspect of his work is that Maslow they are. 6 In other aspects, it can also appear to be spiritual. himself defined self-actualizers as people of great accomLooking at one’s life as to who he or she is in the universe is a good example. Once a person is able to come to terms plishment, such as former presidents, dignitaries and great discoverers. With that being sa id, it is very difficult to place with who they are, and they are ultimately satisfied with an emphasis on the concept of self-actualization. How sigthat, then they have truly reached the point of being able nificant is the concept of the self-actualizer? The only way to self-actualize. With this level of intuition comes a sense of peace, which that to answer that question is to say that all people are at in turn serves as a motivator to focus on more advanced different stages of development, and all of them are selftasks in life, such as supporting the moral and ethical stan- actualizers in some form. SELF-ACTUALIzATION Self-actualization is defined by Maslow as the single component of being within the hierarchy model. Being, in this sense, means not being a part of the deficit needs as they appear within the lower chain of the hierarchy. 1 This need is independent—there must be some accomplishment of all the other deficit needs, which are best defined as what we appear to be, according to the standards of society. Selfactualization is the internal dialogue that everyone establishes at some point in their lives. In order to do that, there must be some establishment or satisfaction of the prior needs. Once all of the previous needs have been met, an individual can direct his or her focus toward a true calling. Usually when a person is hungry, or they don’t feel safe, or they feel unloved, the focal point leans towards resolving those issues, therefore disrupting the focus on self-actualizing. With self-actualization, being able to pinpoint how one truly feels about something is often a little more challenging dards in life. There is a more in-depth focus on bettering oneself and expanding one’s knowledge and talents. The real definition to self-actualizing is getting to know oneself, while being okay and unconditionally accepting of whatever it is that he or she discovers. The question every individual must face is, do you like and accept who you are? Once that question is answered, then self-respect is gained. Once an individual establishes that respect for his or herself, no one can take that away. In this context, Abraham Maslow is justified in establishing self-actualization in a category by itself that quantifies the need of being separately from the need of deficit. 352 | the surgical technologist | AUGUST 2009  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org verview When looking at Maslow’s hierarchy pyramid, an important concept to remember is that anyone at anytime can regress back to any point within the hierarchy structure that Maslow addresses. How does this impact human behavior? Looking back at the very basics of physiological needs for example, people need to feel good. It does not matter if a person is employed as a janitor or a top-notch cardiac surgeon, if he or she is diagnosed with a disease that impacts them physically, he or she is likely to regress back towards satisfying any physiological needs that may come about. The affected individual’s attitude towards the prognosis of this disease will likely contribute towards a shift in his or her priorities. Emotionally, the feelings of love and belonging may be impacted in the sense that they may want to ensure that their loved ones are safe when they pass. With regard to esteem, for some, there may be a great sense of loss, while others may come to terms with the fact. With that being said, there are circumstances that affect each individual with regard to where he or she stands in the hierarchy pyramid. Is everyone a self-actualizer? Yes. For each individual, this experience is different. It is experienced at different depths depending on individual life experiences. The more in touch one is with one’s inner self, the better he or she can control, and often master, one’s self-talk. It is also important to remember that all individuals are constantly impacted by the forces of life, some of which are far beyond personal control. When the opportunity arises to experience this hierarchy, and the needs of deficit are fully met, it allows the individual to make a closer connection with the concept of self-actualization. Also, when these deficit needs are met, self-actualization, in a sense, is likely to become even more enhanced. The bottom line is that everyone is effected emotionally at every level of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. If early life experiences as a child are positive, and needs are being met, that individual will excel in the area of self-confidence and self-esteem at much faster rate. It helps to establish a strong foundation for life. Later, the individual is able to establish a much stronger set of coping mechanisms when one of the deficit needs isn’t being met. Additionally, when adverse circumstances confront the individual, he or she is often better-equipped with the ability to problem solve and confront the challenge confidently. Conversely, if early life experiences as a child are negative, and needs are not met, that individual’s foundation isn’t as secure, and he or she is not as likely to excel in selfconfidence and self-esteem, rather, he or she is likely to get trapped a state of constantly seeking approval from peers. He or she may develop a fear of making mistakes. The majority falls somewhere in between what is positive in life and what is negative. Ultimately, individuals who develop a strong, well-established foundation are likely to be emotionally strong and can exercise a stronger sense of self control. Those whose foundation is shaky and not very stable will focus more on protecting it, therefore having less confidence in that foundation. ABOUT THE AUTHOR Robert A Poston, cst has been a surgical technologist since 1993. He began his work in education with Concorde Career College in North Hollywood, California in 1997. He has been a guest speaker with the California State Assembly of Surgical Technologists in 2001 and 2003. Robert Poston is currently the Program Chair for Surgical Technology at Everest College in Thornton, Colorado. He has also served as an item writer for the National Certification Exam for Surgical Technology. RefeRences 1. Boeree, George C. â€Å"Abraham Maslow, 1908-1970. † Personality Theories. 2006. Available at: http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/maslow. html. Accessed 4/9/2009. 2. BambooWeb Dictionary. â€Å"Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. † 2009. Available at: http://www. bambooweb. com/articles/m/a/Maslow’s_hierarchy_of_needs. html. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 3. Applegate, Edith. The Anatomy and Physiology Learning System. 2000. p 214-215. 4. Drinnien, Beverly; Irwin, Donald; Simons, Janet. Psychology—The Search for Understanding. West Publishing Company. New York. 1987. Available at: http://honolulu. awaii. edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/ teachtip/maslow. htm. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 5. NetMBA Business Knowledge Center. â€Å"Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. † 2007. Available at: http://www. netmba. com/mgmt/ob/motivation/maslow/. Accessed: 4/9/2009. 6. Van Wagner, Kendra. â€Å"Self-Actualization and the Hierarchy of Needs. † 2009. Available at: http://psychology. about. com/od/theoriesofpersonality/a/ hierarchyneeds_2. htm. Accessed: 4/9/2009.  © 2009 Association of Surgical Technologists For reprint permission: publications@ast. org AUGUST 2009 | the surgical technologist | 353 How to cite Paltas, Papers

Revisiting Peace Research In The 21st Century Essay Sample free essay sample

As I grow older I ground more and more of my instruction and authorship in the context of my ain professional history. I studied news media and political scientific discipline in college in the late fiftiess and earned a Masterss degree in political scientific discipline in 1962. After short stretchs in the military and working for the societal security disposal. I decided to prosecute a Ph. D in political scientific discipline. Missing a political vision much beyond liberalism and devoid of any practical political work. I thought being a professor would do a nice calling. As most of you remember or have read about. the mid-1960s was a clip of agitation. Brave immature people. from the South and the North. launched a heroic run to stop Jim Crow segregation in the South. From the Gulf of Tonkin declaration in August. 1964 authorising President Johnson to intensify war in Southeast Asia. to the day-to-day bombardments over Vietnam ( Operation Rolling Thunder ) in 1965 to 540. 000 military personnels in South Vietnam by 1968. battles over the war in Vietnam and foreign policy in general enveloped the society. The 60s was a clip besides when the last traces of colonialism were being dismantled. Merely Lusitanian Africa resisted alteration as did white minority governments in the former Rhodesia and South Africa. In the Western Hemisphere. the Cuban revolution represented the hope of world for the building of a better universe. It was an exciting clip to be alive. to go politicized. and to originate a instruction and research calling. I was drawn to the survey of international dealingss and United States foreign policy within political scientific discipline. Social Science Paradigms: Realism. Behavioralism. and Modernization I had studied international dealingss. foreign policy. and diplomatic history in college. My â€Å"radical† instructors in college were critical of the foreign policies of presidents Truman and Eisenhower. They besides condemned the most simplistic versions of the Cold War account of universe personal businesss. and the excessively avid stigmatization of all critics of United States foreign policy as being â€Å"communists. † I was influenced by my professors and the scholarly literature of the clip to see the universe from the lens of â€Å"the theory of political pragmatism. † Foundational theoreticians who shaped the discourse on international dealingss included British historian E. H. Carr ( 1964 ) . theologian Reinhold Niebuhr ( 1947 ) . retired diplomat George Kennan ( 1957 ) . and political scientist Hans Morgenthau ( 1960 ) . The theory of political pragmatism they propounded Drew upon the classical Hagiographas of ascendants such as Thucydides. St. Augustine. Thomas Hobbes. Machiavelli. and James Madison ( see Dougherty and Pfaltzgraff. 1971 ) . Each in their ain manner saw war and force as emanating from human nature. thrusts for power. greed. and personal award. In a universe of each against all. military capablenesss. â€Å"balances of power. † and other devices whereby the power of one could be checked by the power of another constituted the tools for muffling. but neer extingui shing. war and force. The modern-day realists. for illustration. Kennan and Morgenthau were critics of United States foreign policy non because the U. S. was interventionist or because the American authorities had launched an weaponries race with the former Soviet Union but because these activities were defended in the name of advancing freedom and democracy instead than â€Å"national interest† and â€Å"security. † The job with the anti-communist announcements of the twenty-four hours and the promises of human release they articulated was that they were non accomplishable. There must be. the realists said. a tantrum between ends. rhetoric. and policy. And the figure one end that any state must prosecute is progressing national involvement and security. In a universe of ageless force. this was all that could be achieved. While most teachers of undergraduate classs on international dealingss used Hans Morgenthau’s authoritative text. Politicss Among Nations ( it survived 11 editions ) . newer currents were emerging in the alumnus survey of international dealingss. Following the Soviet launch of Sputnik. an emerging U. S. cultural jubilation of scientific discipline. President Kennedy promised that an American would be on the Moon by the terminal of the 1960ss. Possibly most significantly because of the joust in Defense Department policies and forces from antique military wisdom to modern scientific direction. the survey of international dealingss began to switch toward the â€Å"scientific survey of international dealingss. † Now. societal scientific discipline research workers needed to travel beyond description of political events and policies to explicate them and predict hereafter results. The new survey of international dealingss should encompass scientific techniques: postulate hyp otheses. operationalize them clearly by placing variables that could be measured. and â€Å"test† the hypotheses by analyzing the information utilizing statistical techniques. The behavioural scientific discipline theoretical account became the dominant paradigm throughout the subject of political scientific discipline and significantly so in the survey of international dealingss ( Kaplan. 1966 ; Targ. 1983 ) . While several theories became stylish in the survey of international dealingss and comparative political relations possibly none would hold a greater impact on societal scientific discipline and public policy than modernisation theory ( see Nils Gilman. 2003 ) . Get downing in the fiftiess with assorted preparations of structural functionalism. taking societal scientific discipline bookmans from Harvard. MIT. Yale. Princeton. and the University of Chicago developed a paradigm to explicate why the â€Å"newly† independent states of the universe were sing birth stabs of force and poorness. why they were non democracies. and why insurgent elements. such as anti-regime guerilla combatants. were actively seeking to sabotage development. The modernisation theoreticians studied the development of Europe and North America and concluded that societies needed to develop secular in-between category societies. governed by leaders with scientific and proficient preparation. At a certain ph ase. substructure development. in-between category formation. professionalisation of elites. and qualitative displacements from theological to scientific points of position would give democratic political establishments. When bookmans spoke about public personal businesss. many of them suggested that that procedure of modernisation was what was behind United States foreign policy. Upon contemplation so. the 1960s was a decennary of political convulsion. on college campuses an waking up from the sleepiness of the fifties. and in the larger universe an escalation of the weaponries race. U. S. planetary interventionism. and the Vietnam war. Parallel to these political alterations a new societal scientific discipline was emerging as establishments of higher instruction exploded in Numberss. involvement in societal scientific discipline expanded. and the Department of Defense. the National Science Foundation and other beginnings began to fund large-scale undertakings of relevancy to international dealingss and development. In this context pragmatism ( although worsening in popularity ) . behavioralism. and modernisation grew to rule the survey of international dealingss. Detecting Peace Research I wrote about these contradictory currents at the clip ( Targ. 1971. 207 ) : Since the dramatic escalation of the Vietnam War in 1965 and increasing racial struggles in urban countries. pupils and immature module have begun to re-evaluate the dominant motives of scientific enquiry: the relationship of cognition to U. S. foreign policy. the interaction of cognition and societal control. and the adequateness and/or insufficiency of cognition as docket and usher to societal alteration. Energized by these urges. as pupil and immature professor. my wonder gravitated toward â€Å"peace research. † I was foremost attracted to two outstanding diaries ; The Journal of Conflict Resolution. produced at the Center for Research on Conflict Resolution ( CRCR ) at the University of Michigan. and The Journal of Peace Research. the Institute for Peace Research. Oslo. Norway. The JCR published articles that used the newer â€Å"scientific methods. † were theory and informations driven. and implied that the kineticss of interpersonal. national. and international struggle might be similar or â€Å"isomorphic. † so that bookmans might analyze struggle at these different degrees of analysis to detect the implicit in causes of struggle and force. JCR had a distinguished list of subscribers and editors stand foring psychological science. societal psychological science. sociology. economic sciences. political scientific discipline. and mathematics. The JPR initiated publication in 1964 with Johan Galtung as editor. In its first issue. Galtung described two possible universes ; one he referred to as a status of General and Complete War ( GCW ) . In this universe cooperation occurred within groups. but conflict characterized between group interactions. Individual and group ( and state ) histrions were motivated wholly by individualistic ends ; designation was with self entirely. In this province of GCW there were no effectual restraints on the usage of force. Another possible status. Galtung posited. was one of General and Complete Peace ( GCP ) . This was a status in which human integrating prevailed. harmoniousness of persons. groups and states was a characteristic characteristic of human being. and force was minimized. In this initial issue of JPR. Galtung declared that the peace research undertaking was to analyze how to travel from GCW to GCP ( an terminal to force and integrating of human society ) . Peace research should analyze force in its interpersonal. national. and international manifestations. It should turn to bettering the human status. It should be interdisciplinary. normative and futuristic every bit good. And. of class. the peace research undertaking should utilize the latest of scientific techniques to analyze the motion from GCW to GCP. The growing of influence of these diaries paralleled the enlargement of webs of professional peace research/peace surveies associations. These included the International Peace Research Association ( IPRA ) . the Canadian Peace Research Association. the Consortium on Peace Research Education and Development ( COPRED ) . now the Peace and Justice Studies Association ( PJSA ) . and the Peace Science Society. Peace surveies caucuses were created in professional associations including those of societal psychologists. international dealingss bookmans. and sociologists. As I acquainted myself more with peace research I became cognizant of the rational and activist tradition from which it evolved. First. peace research evolved from a long history of peace instruction. Religious pacificists and peace militants long preached and taught approximately options to force. Peace instruction frequently developed in parallel with anti-war activism. From Congregational. Unitarian. and Quaker meetings to anti-slavery and anti-war motions in the 19th and 20th centuries. militants every bit different as Henry David Thoreau. Jane Addams. Mark Twain. and Eugene V. Debs wrote and spoke about peace. Second. peace surveies of assorted sorts evolved out of practical diplomatic accomplishments such as the Hague conferences of 1899 and 1907 which codified elements of international jurisprudence. These were followed after World War I with the first academic course of study on international jurisprudence. Third. a organic structure of peace research scholarship was published in the period from the 1930s to the sixtiess that served as the theoretical account for the peace research tradition that followed. David Mitrany. a British bookman. wrote A Working Peace System. in 1943. which analyzed the chances for planetary integrating based upon cross-national economic. societal. and functional ties between peoples. He provided a model that stimulated the survey of regional â€Å"integration† in Europe. Africa. and Latin America in the sixtiess. Major experimental surveies of war were published between 1940 and the late sixtiess that dramatically advanced the thought that data on wars. their frequence. causes. and effects could be accumulated such that assorted hypotheses associating these to each other could be tested. Quincy Wright. political scientist. published a 2. 000 page data-rich book on the history of war called A Study of War ( 1942 ) . Lewis Richardson. a retired meteorologist. gathered informations on wars from 1815 to 1945. Statisticss of Deadly Quarrels ( 1960 ) . Pitirim Sorokin’s four volume. Social and Cultural Dynamics ( 1957 ) . included historical informations on internal and international wars over clip. associating the frequence of such wars to cultural properties. In the 1950s and 60s Rudolph Rummel gathered an array of informations. from his Dimensionality of Nations Project ( 1968 ) as did long-time political scientist/peace research worker J. David Singer who published books and articles bas ed on The Correlates of War Project ( 1972 ) . In add-on to the rich history. peace research was progressively stimulated by the acknowledgment of the world’s greatest weaponries race. the turning danger of a atomic war that could destruct world. and an intense planetary ideological battle defined as between â€Å"communism† and â€Å"the free universe. † The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists portrayed a clock with the custodies gauging how near the universe was to midnight. the hr of atomic apocalypse. Each crisis would take the editors of the diary to travel the custodies on the clock to the top of the hr. Peace Research Battles: Traditionalists vs. Groups Despite the turning involvement in peace research. dominant paradigms in international dealingss. political scientific discipline. and history continued to reify power as the cardinal construct driving political analysis. This was so even among those who had gravitated to peace research. The universe was understood as one dominated by two world powers supervising two viing power axis. The bipolar universe was a peculiar discrepancy of the province system that was created in the 17th century. The ultimate units of analysis were separate and distinguishable nation-states. Since a few were ever more powerful than all others. international dealingss became the survey of powerful provinces. For the most portion traditional peace research workers concerned themselves with struggle between powerful provinces. peculiarly because of the danger of atomic war. For them. struggle. hence. was symmetrical. based on subjective factors such as misperceptions. misinterpretations. and miscommunications. and involved approximately equal antagonists. [ The work of Roger Fisher and Charles Osgood on dialogues and schemes for deescalating struggles is relevant here ( 2010 ) ] . Because of the weaponries race of the station World War II period. so. they fashioned a peace research that was committed to conflict direction or declaration among the large powers. Their end was accomplishing negative peace. or war turning away. For other peace research workers. this scholarly lens on the universe seemed progressively divorced from political world ( Eide. 1972 ) . The dreams of human release that came with the rapid decolonisation of the African continent were being derailed as what Kwame Nkrumah called â€Å"neo-colonialism† replaced formal colonialism. Gaps between rich and hapless peoples and states began their dramatic addition. Covert operations. military putschs. large power intercessions in hapless states increased. Wars ensued against peoples in South and East Asia. the Middle East. Africa. and Latin America. And transnational corporations were distributing their operations all across the Earth. originating the first great moving ridge of outsourcings of production and occupations. For many Americans and Asians. the most racking experience of all these manifestations of planetary confusion was the Vietnam War. In this historical context. extremist peace research workers began to reason that our apprehension of these phenomena required a important paradigm displacement. If we wanted to understand the universe in order to alter it we needed to interrupt out of the province centric. great powers. struggle direction construct of international dealingss. We needed to develop theories and prescriptions that helped us understand the universe we lived in so that we could work on the decrease of the tremendous spreads between human potency and human actuality ; and. hence. structural force. These peace research workers called structural force the difference between how humanity could populate. secure in economic and societal justness. versus how most people live. They asked inquiries about the constructions and processes that prohibited the full realisation of human possibility. Peace research workers besides saw an inextricable connexion between direct force. or killing. which was the more traditional topic of peace research. and structural force. which involved the institutionalization of human wretchedness. Further. they hypothesized that there were connexions between imperialism. the workings of capitalist economy. patriarchate. institutionalised racism. societal and economic unfairness and both direct and structural force. More specifically. extremist peace research workers began to see that both direct and structural force resulted from a planetary political/economic/ and cultural system in which Centers of Power within and between states controlled and exploited Periphery states and people. A system of imperialism existed whereby governing categories in nucleus states collaborated with opinion categories in peripheral states to work multitudes of people. This was a system that had its roots in the rise of capitalist economy out of feudal system. It was a system of imperial regulation. It was a system of patriarchate. It was a system of institutionalised racism. And wars were the consequence of battles for imperial control and domination. Extremist peace research workers borrowed thoughts from dependence theory and grafted them onto traditional theories of imperialism to offer an alternate paradigm to the state-centric. power goaded theoretical account that dominated the academy and political punditry ( Galtung. 1971 ) . The Cult of Power Berenice Carroll added to the emerging paradigm displacement in her article â€Å"Peace Research: The Cult of Power† ( 1972 ) by deconstructing the usage of â€Å"power† as the concept cardinal to the traditional paradigm. Besides she alerted peace research workers to the inexplicit credence in their work of the cult of power. Possibly most significantly. Carroll offered an alternate construct of power that would radically airt survey in a manner to associate peace research to peace action. In short. her work reflected a tradition of scholarship and activism that called for the linking of theory and pattern. Professor Carroll pointed out that virtually all theories of international dealingss began with a construct of power. And the power variable had seeped into the public consciousness of universe personal businesss every bit good. In its modern-day use â€Å"power† referred to command. laterality. and the ability to determine the consciousness and behaviour of others– persons. groups. and/or states. Hans Morgenthau. the most influential theoretician of international dealingss in those yearss said that power was cardinal to human personal businesss: â€Å"Power is the control of the heads and actions of others. † and â€Å"international political relations like all political relations involves the battle for power. † Carroll pointed out that theoreticians sometimes defined power as the ability to rule. Sometimes they defined power as the instrumentalities of control ( such as military capablenesss ) . Sometimes they defined power as a sensed position ordinati on of states. But what was cardinal here was control and domination. And every bit long as the ability to command and rule were unevenly distributed merely those with the greatest power were worthy of attending. Carroll reminded us that there used to be definitions of power in public discourse that emphasized release instead than control. These older definitions included words like strength. competency. asperity. energy. authorization. the ability to realize. To cite Carroll. â€Å"Thus it appears that the presently prevailing apprehension of power as control and laterality is a development of recent decennaries. The more traditional significance centered on the thought of ability and strength. † She went on to warn extremist peace research workers that while they clearly had a better appreciation of world. they excessively reified power in the modern use. She suggested that peace research workers failed to â€Å"†¦challenge the prevalent construct of power as laterality ; its preoccupation with establishments. groups or individuals which are perceived as powerful. and to some extent besides in a inclination for the research worker to place with those establishments. groups. or individuals which are seen as powerful ; † that is the elites. the cardinal determination shapers. the nation-states and the world powers. The danger. she implied. is that we. the most progressive of bookmans and militants. may be unwittingly encompassing the conceptual tools that reinforce the position quo instead than take sides for societal alteration. To exemplify her point in a manner relevant to peace theory. Carroll offered a graphic quotation mark from a distinguished bookman of that clip Karl Deutsch ( 1968 ) who wrote: Today. and for one or more decennaries to come. the nation-states are and will be the world’s chief centres of power. They will stay such centres every bit long as the nation-state remains man’s first practical instrument for acquiring things done. What deductions for peace theory did Professor Carroll suggest should be deduced from this â€Å"cult of power? † First. scholar/activists needed to reject the impression that power represents laterality. Second. scholar/activists needed to broaden their research lens from concentrating on alleged powerful establishments. like the nation-state. or determination devising elites and get down to analyze the entireness of the social/political/ and cultural terrain. Third. scholar/activists needed to use the older construct of power as realization. competency. averment of rights ; in other words a vision of power that understands that historical alteration is a complicated matter affecting multitudes of people non normally studied or valued by modern-day scholarship. Fourth. scholar/activists needed to reject a frame on world. accepted even by the more extremist. that presents history as the battle between the powerful and victims and which portrays people as impotent to asseverate their rights and privileges. ( I would reason that discourse in the academy is peculiarly good at bordering political world which consists of t people who are powerless. or nescient. or missing in resources to asseverate themselves. or are in the terminal the cause of their ain victimhood. This projection is peculiarly strong among those who neer set pes off the college campus as they pontificate about the behaviour of people ) . Summarizing this up. Professor Carroll wrote ; †¦one of the most baneful effects of the cultist constructs of power is that it has built up a strong association between the deficiency of power in the sense of laterality and impotence in the sense of helplessness†¦ . To interrupt out of this cast what seems most desperately needed is to reconstruct to public consciousness andto the consciousness of bookmans the thought of power as competency ; to develop that thought more to the full by distinguishing the sorts of energy. ability. and strength which it may connote and. in peculiar. to seek to analyze powers of the allegedly powerless-the sorts of competency and potencies for independent action which are available to those who do non hold the power of dominance†¦ . Subsequent Developments in Peace Research and Peace Studies Since the 1960s there have been paradigmatic differences in many of the societal scientific disciplines and humanistic disciplines. The rubric of an old book by Robert Lynd. poses the inquiry that has been raised many times: â€Å"Knowledge for What? † ( 1970 ) Debates about values used in the choice of what to research and for what intents surfaced in extremist caucuses in doctrine. sociology. political scientific discipline. history. psychological science. and the modern linguistic communication association. Besides debates were forthcoming in international surveies about the substance of the field of survey and the class/race/gender positions reflected in dominant paradigms. Peace research/peace surveies has grown peculiarly since the sixtiess. Numerous diaries turn toing peace research have been produced. About 250 colleges and universities have undergraduate plans in peace surveies. A few universities have peace surveies or likewise defined alumnus plans. International conferences. frequently organized under the auspices of IPRA. have been held all over the universe and good known peace research bookmans from every continent have participated in academic conferences and published original research. Some peace research workers have combined their involvement in peace surveies with parallel and every bit interdisciplinary chases. Berenice Carroll. for illustration. has been a taking feminist bookman and while take parting in the Committee on Peace Studies at Purdue University besides served as the Chairperson of a alumnus and undergraduate plan in Women’s Studies. While growing and development of peace surveies from both research and educational point of views has been blunt conceptual arguments. rank-ordering of undertakings. and other outstanding issues of difference remain. First. at that place has ever been a tenseness between those who view the survey of peace in higher instruction as chiefly a scholarly undertaking and those who see the research docket for peace as accessory to activism. In add-on. different accents have emerged between those who support research versus those who highlight learning ( including peace teaching methods from K through 12 ) . Second. there is a tenseness between those who see their work as chiefly empirical and others who argue for the centrality of normativity: fundamentally debating whether research and instruction should turn to what is or what ought to be. Third. argument continues on foundational constructs: force and peace. Particularly. peace research workers and militants split on whether precedences should be placed on issues of direct force or structural force. In add-on inquiries exist about whether the war job can be resolved before we solve the societal unfairness job. Fourth. issues have been raised about the possible intersections that can be created between the peace research forming constructs. force and peace. and forming constructs in Marxist. Feminist. and Critical Race theoretical literatures. Fifth. sectors of the peace research community argue for a field of survey that is framed by rules of non-violence. Analysiss of what is. what should be. and how to acquire at that place. for these bookmans and militants is derived from contemplations on the literature of non-violence. Others emphasize the electoral sphere and a few still draw upon the literature of revolution. In any instance. many argue. peace research workers need to garner informations and analyze societal motions. Sixth. the issues of difference described above between â€Å"traditional† and â€Å"radical† research have non disappeared. Cardinal to these is the topographic point of struggle declaration and mediation as tools of peace edifice. Finally. peace surveies plans. as with many interdisciplinary and non-traditional plans. are and will be under careful examination because of the economic crisis in higher instruction. As major universities are required to shrivel their budgets many have called for extinguishing â€Å"frills† in the course of study. â€Å"Frills† . it is understood. refer to broad humanistic disciplines classs and peculiarly non-traditional and interdisciplinary plans. In add-on. there have been rightwing onslaughts on all interdisciplinary plans by showy self-seekers such as David Horowitz. Three Indiana professors were named to Horowitz’s grand list of the 101 most unsafe professors ( 2006 ) . All three were affiliated with Peace Studies plans. Where make we travel from here? For a immature faculty member who was easy drawn into the whirlpool of anti-war activities in the sixtiess and as a immature faculty member who desired to associate his instruction and research to the activism of that point in clip. peace research provided an rational ground tackle. a theoretical account for incorporating theory and pattern. and an academic community that could excite rational development. That tradition and the arguments raised within it. such as what we mean by force and peace. are as relevant today as in the past. We must form to support the viability of subjects such as Peace Research as they are capable to assorted political onslaughts. In add-on. peace research must go on to be a theoretical account for engaged scholarship. It should pull upon issues of the decrease of force. bettering the human status. and acknowledging the possible strengths of the disempowered. As implied from Professor Carroll’s deconstruction of the â€Å"cult of power. † the followers should steer the peace research and instruction community in the hereafter. 1 ) We need in our scholarship to stress the centrality of workers. adult females. people of colour. and all alleged marginalized people as makers of history. or at least to acknowledge their function in making history. 2 ) We need to prosecute in research undertakings that might assist persons. groups. and classes gain assurance and strength in their societal undertakings. 3 ) We need to widen our scholarship to the survey and jubilation of those who have chosen the way to authorization and the rating of their comparative successes and failures. This would non be an exercising in romanticism but instead an exercising in developing a more sophisticated apprehension of history and alteration. 4 ) We need to construct our theories and our research skills through active battle in the procedure of societal alteration. Theoretical proof comes from engagement non backdown. 5 ) We need to associate theoretical accounts of authorization to all sectors of society. We can non encompass the issue of competency. strength. and self-actualization for one constituency and utilize traditional theoretical accounts of domination to seek to understand other parallel constituencies. Here is where understanding the connexions between category. race. and gender play a peculiarly of import function. Finally. peace research and activism should broaden its lens on the universe to research and measure motions for extremist alteration everyplace. We need to larn more about the World Social Forum and the monolithic figure of organisations which comprise its â€Å"membership. † And. in add-on. we need to make out to and analyze the wide array of motions originating in the Global South. For illustration. we should detect the turning opposition to neoliberal globalisation. peculiarly among the states and peoples of the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas ( ALBA ) . We need to reflect on the planetary significance of non-national autochthonal motions. cross-national signifiers of worker and women’s organisations. and the exciting array of new runs around land and mill businesss. Possibly most of all we need to measure the theory and pattern of what is called twenty-first century socialism. Mentions Carr. E. H. The Twenty Years’ Crisis: 1919-1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations. Harper and Row. 1964. Carroll. Berenice. â€Å"Peace Research: The Cult of Power. † The Journal of Conflict Resolution. No. 4. December. 1972. 585-617. Deutsch. Karl. W. the analysis of International Relations. Prentice-Hall. 1968. Dougherty. James and Robert Pfaltzgraff. Contending Theories of International Relations. Lippincott. 1971. Eide. Asbjorn. â€Å"Dialogue and Confrontation in Europe. † The Journal of Conflict Resolution. No. 4. December. 1972. 511-523. Fisher. Roger. William Ury. and Bruce Patton. â€Å"Getting to Yes. † in David Barash erectile dysfunction. Approaches to Peace. Oxford Press. 2010. 71-78. Galtung. Johan. â€Å"A Structural Theory of Imperialism. † Journal of Peace Research. No. 2. 1971. 81-119. Gilman. Nils. Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Johns Hopkins. 2003. Kaplan. Morton. â€Å"The New Great Argument: Traditionalism vs. Science in International Relations. † World Politics. October. 1966. Kennan. George. American Diplomacy. 1900-1950. Mentor. 1957. Lynd. Robert. Knowledge for What? Princeton University Press. 1970. Mitrany. David. A Working Peace System. Quadrangle. 1966. Morgenthau. Hans. Politics Among Nations. Knopf. 1960. Niebuhr. Reinhold. Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study of Ethics and Politics. Scribners. 1947. Osgood. Charles. â€Å"Disarmament Demands GRIT. † in David Barash erectile dysfunction. Approaches to Peace. Oxford. 2010. 78-83. Richardson. Lewis. Statisticss of Deadly Quarrels. Quadrangle. 1960. Rummel Rudolph. â€Å"The Relationship Between National Attributes and Foreign Conflict Behavior. † in J. David Singer erectile dysfunction. . Quantitative International Politics: Penetrations and Evidence. Free Press. 1968. Singer. J. David and Melvin Small. The Wages of War 1816-1965. A Statistical Handbook. John Wiley. 1972. Sorokin. Pitirim. Social and Cultural Dynamics. Porter Sargent. 1957. Targ. Harry R. . International Relations in a World of Imperialism and Class Struggle. Schenkman. 1983. Targ. Harry R. . â€Å"Social Science and a New Social Order. † Journal of Peace Research. No. 3. 1971. Wright. Quincy. A Study of War. University of Chicago. 1942.

Cellular Respiration Lab Essays - Plant Physiology,

Cellular Respiration Lab Introduction This lab was done to determine the relationship of gas production to respiration rate. Justin Pyka and I did the lab on December 12th, 2000 in Mr. Myers room. The lab was done with dormant pea seeds and germinating pea seeds. It was done to test the effect of temperature on the rate of cellular respiration in ungerminated versus germinating seeds. We had to determine the change in gas volume in respirometers. This was done to determine how much oxygen was consumed during the experiment. The respirometers contained either germinating, or non-germinating pea seeds. I think that the germinating seeds will have a higher oxygen consumption rate in a room temperature water bath than the non-germinating seeds. My reason for this hypothesis is that a dormant seed would not have to go through respiration because it is not a plant yet. A germinating seed would consume more oxygen because it is growing, and therefore would need to consume oxygen by going through the process of cellular respirat ion. Methods and Materials Materials: Glass Vials 1 mL Glass Pipette Tubes Rubber Stoppers 264 Germinating Pea Seeds 264 Dried Pea Seeds 100 mL Graduated Cylinder Glass Beads Absorbent Cotton Solid KOH Dry Cotton 25 Degree C Distilled Water Bath 10 Degree C Distilled Water Bath Red Indicator (Safrin) Syringe With Needle on End Rubber Stoppers Methods: See lab handout for methods of completing the experiment and recording the results. Note: Two tests were done for each step. Results See graphs for interpretation of results. In the room temperature water bath, the glass beads, and the dry pea seeds and glass beads consumed the least amount of oxygen (see chart 1). The germinating pea seeds consumed the most oxygen. They consumed almost three times as much oxygen as the glass beads alone, and the glass beads and dry pea seeds. According to my results, the vials containing the glass beads in the 10-degree C water bath consumed large amounts of oxygen (see chart 2). The vials containing the dry seeds and glass beads had the same result. I think that this is because the gas in the vials cooled, and when it cooled, it took up less space in the vial, therefore pulling the indicator down the respirometer tube, which would make it look like the contents in the vials consumed large amounts of oxygen. The germinating seeds consumed almost no oxygen throughout the experiment in the 10-degree C water bath. I think that this is because when an organism cools down, all of its cellular functions slow down. Which means that the germinating seeds would slow down their respiration rates because of the colder temperature. The indicator stayed at about the same spot in the respirometer tube. That means that the germinating seeds were producing some gasses to offset the reduction in the space taken up by the gas in the vials caused by the cooler temperature. Conclusion After completing this experiment, I have come to the conclusion that a germinating seed of a plant consumes more oxygen than a dry seed of a plant. When the germinating seed is cooled down however, the rate of oxygen consumption is reduced drastically because all of the cellular processes are slowed down from the cooler surroundings. I think that my hypothesis was correct because my results from the experiment show that the vials containing the germinating seeds consumed more oxygen in the room temperature water bath than the other vials. This lab was a good representation of what effects temperature has on cellular processes because it showed that respiration slowed down when the temperature was reduced, and respiration increased when the temperature increased. Science Essays

J. Edgar Hoover, Controversial FBI Director for Nearly Five Decades

J. Edgar Hoover, Controversial FBI Director for Nearly Five Decades J. Edgar Hoover led the FBI for decades and became one of the most influential and controversial figures in 20th century America. He built the bureau into a mighty law enforcement agency but also perpetrated abuses that reflect dark chapters in American law. For much of his career, Hoover was widely respected, partly because of his own keen sense of public relations. The public perception of the FBI was often inextricably linked to Hoovers own public image as a tough but virtuous lawman. Fast Facts: J. Edgar Hoover Full Name: John Edgar HooverBorn: January 1, 1895 in Washington, D.C.Died: May 2, 1972 in Washington, D.C.Known For: Served as director of the FBI for nearly five decades, from 1924 until his death in 1972.Education: George Washington University Law SchoolParents: Dickerson Naylor Hoover and Annie Marie Scheitlin HooverMajor Accomplishments: Made the FBI into the nations top law enforcement agency while also acquiring a reputation for engaging in political vendettas and violations of civil liberties. The reality was often quite different. Hoover was reputed to harbor countless personal grudges and was widely rumored to blackmail politicians who dared cross him. He was widely feared, as he could ruin careers and target anyone who aroused his ire with harassment and intrusive surveillance. In the decades since Hoovers death, the FBI has grappled with his troubling legacy. Early Life and Career John Edgar Hoover was born in Washington, D.C., on January 1, 1895, the youngest of five children. His father worked for the federal government, for the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. As a boy, Hoover was not athletic, but he pushed himself to excel in areas that suited him. He became the leader of his school’s debate team and was also active in the school’s cadet corps, which engaged in military style drills. Hoover attended George Washington University at night while working at the Library of Congress for five years. In 1916, he received a law degree, and he passed the bar exam in 1917. He received a deferment from military service in World War I as he took a job in the U.S. Department of Justice, in the division that tracked enemy aliens. With the Justice Department severely understaffed due to the war, Hoover began a fast rise through the ranks. In 1919, he was promoted to a position as a special assistant to Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. Hoover played an active role in planning the infamous Palmer Raids, the federal government’s crackdown on suspected radicals. Hoover became obsessed with the idea of foreign radicals undermining the United States. Relying on his experience at the Library of Congress, where he had mastered the indexing system used to catalog books, he began building extensive files on suspected radicals. The Palmer Raids were eventually discredited, but within the Justice Department Hoover was rewarded for his work. He was made the head of the department’s Bureau of Investigations, at the time a largely neglected organization with little power. Creating the FBI In 1924, corruption in the Justice Department, a byproduct of Prohibition, required the reorganizing of the Bureau of Investigations. Hoover, who lived a quiet life and seemed incorruptible, was appointed as its director. He was 29 years old and would hold the same post until his death at the age of 77 in 1972. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, Hoover transformed the bureau from an obscure federal office to an aggressive and modern law enforcement agency. He began a national fingerprint database and opened a crime laboratory dedicated to using scientific detective work. Hoover also raised the standards of his agents and created an academy to train new recruits. Once accepted into what came to be viewed as an elite force, the agents had to adhere to a dress code dictated by Hoover: business suits, white shirts, and snap-brim hats. In the early 1930s, new legislation allowed Hoovers agents to carry guns and take on more powers. After President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a series of new federal crime bills, the bureau was renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation. J. Edgar Hoover with child film star Shirley Temple. Getty Images   To the public, the FBI was always portrayed as a heroic agency battling against crime. In radio shows, movies, and even comic books, the â€Å"G-Men† were incorruptible protectors of American values. Hoover met with Hollywood stars and became a keen manager of his own public image. Decades of Controversy In the years following World War II, Hoover became obsessed with the threat, real or not, of worldwide communist subversion. In the wake of such high-profile cases as the Rosenbergs and Alger Hiss, Hoover positioned himself as America’s foremost defender against the spread of communism. He found a receptive audience in the hearings of the House Un-American Activities Committee (known widely as HUAC). During the McCarthy Era, the FBI, at Hoover’s direction, investigated anyone suspected of communist sympathies. Careers were ruined and civil liberties were trampled. An F. B. I. poster signed by J. Edgar Hoover warns civilians against saboteurs and spies. Corbis/VCG via Getty Images / Getty Images In 1958 he published a book, Masters of Deceit, which expressed his case that the United States government was in danger of being toppled by a worldwide communist conspiracy. His warnings found a steady following and no doubt helped inspire organizations such as the John Birch Society. Hostility Toward the Civil Rights Movement Perhaps the darkest stain on Hoover’s record came during the years of the Civil Rights Movement in America. Hoover was hostile to the struggle for racial equality, and was perpetually motivated to somehow prove that Americans striving for equal rights were in fact dupes of a communist plot. He came to despise Martin Luther King, Jr., who he suspected of being a communist. Hoover’s FBI targeted King for harassment. Agents went so far as to send King letters urging him to kill himself or threatening that embarrassing personal information (presumably picked up by FBI wiretaps) would be revealed. Hoover’s obituary in the New York Times, published the day after his death, mentioned that he had publicly referred to King as â€Å"most notorious liar in the country.† The obituary also noted that Hoover had invited reporters to hear tapes recorded in King’s hotel rooms to prove that â€Å"moral degenerates,† as Hoover put it, were leading the Civil Rights Movement. Longevity in Office When Hoover reached a mandatory retirement age of 70, on January 1, 1965, President Lyndon Johnson chose to make an exception for Hoover. Likewise, Johnson’s successor, Richard M. Nixon, chose to let Hoover remain in his top post at the FBI. In 1971, LIFE magazine published a cover story on Hoover, which noted in its opening paragraph that when Hoover had become head of the Bureau of Investigations in 1924, Richard Nixon was 11 years old and sweeping up in his family’s California grocery store. A related article by political reporter Tom Wicker in the same issue explored the difficulty of replacing Hoover. The article in LIFE followed, by one month, a startling set of revelations. A group of young activists had broken into a small FBI office in Pennsylvania and stolen a number of secret files. The material in the heist revealed that the FBI had been conducting widespread spying against American citizens. The secret program, known as COINTELPRO (bureau speak for â€Å"counterintelligence program†) had started in the 1950s, aimed at Hoover’s favorite villains, American communists. Over time, the surveillance spread to the those advocating for civil rights as well as racist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan. By the late 1960s, the FBI was conducting widespread surveillance against civil rights workers, citizens protesting the Vietnam War, and generally anyone Hoover viewed as having radical sympathies. Some of the bureau’s excesses now seem absurd. For example, in 1969 the FBI opened a file on comedian George Carlin, who had told jokes on a Jackie Gleason variety show which apparently poked fun at Hoover. Hoover and his constant companion for decades, Clyde Tolson. Getty Images Personal Life By  the 1960s, it had become clear that Hoover had a blind spot when it came to organized crime. For years he had contended that the Mafia did not exist, but when local cops broke up a meeting of mobsters in upstate New York in 1957, that began to seem ridiculous. He eventually allowed that organized crime did exist, and the FBI became more active in trying to combat it. Modern critics have even alleged that Hoover, who was always inordinately interested in the personal lives of others, may have been blackmailed over his own sexuality. Suspicions about Hoover and blackmail may be unfounded. But Hoover’s personal life raised questions, though they were not publicly addressed during his life. Hoovers constant companion for decades was Clyde Tolson, an FBI employee. On most days, Hoover and Tolson ate lunch and dinner together in Washington restaurants. They arrived at the FBI offices together in a chauffeur driven car, and for decades they vacationed together. When Hoover died, he left his estate to Tolson (who died three years later, and was buried near Hoover in Washington’s Congressional Cemetery). Hoover served as FBI director until his death on May 2, 1972. Over the following decades, reforms such as limiting the term of FBI director to ten years, have been instituted to distance the FBI from Hoovers troubling legacy. Sources John Edgar Hoover. Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2nd ed., vol. 7, Gale, 2004, pp. 485-487. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Cointelpro. Gale Encyclopedia of American Law, edited by Donna Batten, 3rd ed., vol. 2, Gale, 2010, pp. 508-509. Gale Virtual Reference Library.Lydon, Christopher. J. Edgar Hoover Made the FBI Formidable With Politics, Publicity and Results. New York Times, 3 May 1972, p. 52.

Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) Essay

Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) - Essay Example The usages of these social media sites have proved to be both fruitful and dangerous. Adolescents and children have been engaging on social media platforms in a frequent manner, which have shown enhanced communication, technical skills as well as social connection. Popular social media sites such as, MySpace and Facebook, provide multiple opportunities for their users to connect with classmates, friends and other groups with similar interest, on a daily basis. A recent poll has revealed that almost 22 percent of teenagers use their favourite media sites almost 10 times daily. Nearly 50 percent of the teenagers use their mobiles for social media purposes and the number is continuously increasing (Schurgin & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). Therefore, it can be said that a significant part of the current generation’s emotional and social development is influenced by these social media websites (Roper & Shah, 2007). Various downsides have been observed because of large influence of these media sites. Limited self-regulation and peer pressure among adolescents and children have been posing some risk while these users are experimenting and navigating with multiple social media sites (Thomson, MacInnis & Park, 2005). Research has indicated that online expressions result in negative offline behaviours, including clique-forming, bullying as well as sexual experimentation, subsequently leading to privacy issues and cyber bullying. Other issues influencing children related to high usage of social media are sleep deprivation and internet addiction (Karahanna, Agarwal & Angst, 2006). A new phenomenon has been proposed by researchers, which is known as ‘Facebook Depression.’ It is a condition seen to develop in teens and preteens who are spending immense amount of time on numerous social media sites such as, Facebook, Twitter and MySpace and then developing classic depression symptoms. In an adolescent’s life, contact and acceptance by peers and friends is

Effect of e-readers on the publishing industry Assignment

Effect of e-readers on the publishing industry - Assignment Example ed that social exchange theory is taking place on an international level as the humanity has learned the art and science of communicating across cultures and borders. The internationalization of communication and socialization is identified as essence of the notion known as global village (Graham 1998). In recent years, leading technological companies have launched devices that have been blessed with the capability of helping people in accessing and downloading books and other kinds of literature. The old fashion and traditional practice of reading books in a printed format is ending. Major number of publications is being provided to public in an electronic format while the most used format is called Portable Document Format (PDF). The conventional method of providing printing books got very expensive and therefore, the major publishing companies such as McGraw Hill initiated to provide publications in an electronic format. The basic and fundamental purpose of using electronic devices as sources of accessing literature is to drive down the production costs whereas, the end readers are also provided with significant level of cost advantages. In summary, it can be urged and argued that availability and cost of printed information has notably increased and decreased respectively (Pan & Leidner 2003). The current period, the customers and common peoples information has considerably risen and therefore, companies and governments are facing problems in justifying their filthy practices from public. The publishing companies are offering books and research journals in e-format and they provide printed copies on special request only. The supporters of high involvement of technology in knowledge management argue that human mind is well accustomed to understanding materials in print format. They also suggest that human sensory centers are experiencing growing and noticeable level of stress because of focusing on screens. But, these potential disadvantages will subside as

Ethics and Communications in Organizations Essay

Ethics and Communications in Organizations - Essay Example Thus, ethics maintain great significance in everyday human life, where their importance multiplies within the organizational behavior during the course of offering one’s services in one way or the other. Professional ethics also suggest the personnel in respect of developing pleasant and amicable relationships with the management, colleagues, subordinates, clients and the general public at large, through an adequate communication system, which is vehemently important for climbing the ladder of success and growth in one’s career for the future years to come. The contemporary era has made imperative alterations in all fields of human life. The world’s turning into a global village has established such type of business environment, where the individuals belonging to divergent ethnic, racial, regional, religious and family backgrounds as well as obtaining variant educational qualifications, occupational skills, different socioeconomic positions and divergent sexual o rientations work under one roof and under the command of one single administration, during which they have to come across several awkward and unpleasant incidents because of the behaviors of others. Somehow, commitment to one’s cause and dedication to one’s responsibilities serve as the core concepts of climbing the ladder of professional growth and financial stability. It is not specific to one occupation only; rather, the same is applied to all the existing professions of contemporary times at large. â€Å"Values and ethics are central to any organization; those operating in the national security arena are no exception. Both are extremely broad terms, and we need to focus in on the aspects most relevant for strategic leaders and decision makers.† (National Defense University) Ethics in Organizations: One of the most formidable ethics the professionals must apply is their sense of responsibilities towards the workplace. A professional is the representative of h is organization, which offers him job opportunity, respectable place, and financial compensation, along with protecting him from becoming the prey to unemployment, idleness and mental disturbance created because of joblessness. It is, therefore, the professional must render his services to the organization diligently and actively without displaying any reluctance and non-compliance with the duties and obligations he has been hired to accomplish. Additionally, it is also the ethical responsibility of the professional not to let the name, fame, and reputation of his organization go to the dashes, because of his misbehave or negligence towards the customers and clients. Moreover, the professional must check the working of his colleagues, co-workers, and subordinates in order to assure their performance for the best interest of the organization. The professional must also interact with the superiors time and again, and if they are in need of his support at any matter, he must accomplish the same within the appropriate time and without any deliberate delays.